Week I Update (Summaries, quotes, comments on readings) PART 1

BOOK 18

A short summary of what is happening is that Patroklos (Achilles' best companion) has returned to the battle in place of Achilles (Book 16), wearing HIS armor. Interesting enough, before Achilles finds out that his companion has been killed, he has taken himself out of the battle due to his mênis (μηνις) or what can be translated as a SUPER, COSMIC ANGER (similar to that of Zeus). By having Patroklos be a substitute for Achilles, it shifts the direction of Achilles and the epic, since Patroklos was his therapôn (ritual substitute). Patroklos’ death is the end of his mênis, and the beginning of his akhos (αλγος; sorrow which will fuel his vengeance).

Book 18 is where Homer lays out what is to be followed should Achilles submit to his extreme nature (that of akhos). His mother, Thetis, warns him that should he kill Hektor, his death will follow (Il. 55-64, 95-96). Achilles has no problem with meeting his death (Il. 114-116).  However, he cannot go back to battle yet, since he covered Patroklos with his old armor, and at the time of his death, Hektor took it upon himself to take it as his prize. Thetis realizes that she cannot stop her son from going back into war and avenging Patroklos, but she does decide to help him in any way she can (as a way to prolonging his death), by going to Hephaistos and bringing him a new armor (Il. 130-137).

The new armor will be the most important part of this book/chapter. The description of the shield is lines 468-616. (Figure below: An illustration of the shield. More illustrations: CLICK HERE.)

The usage of the word, δίκη, is only used once in the chapter. It is line 508, which reads: “τῷ δόμεν ὃς μετὰ τοῖσι δίκην ἰθύντατα εἴποι.” The Lattimore translation reads: “…to that judge who in this case spoke the straightest opinion.” To get the context of the usage of dike in this line, is to begin at 497 where a quarrel breaks out between two men "disputing the blood price for a man who had been killed." As noted in the Overton article, Homer doesn't employ δίκη that often, but he will employ αμϕοτεροισι (dikáspolos); a term applying to a judge. It is found in line 502, "λαοὶ δ᾽ ἀμφοτέροισιν ἐπήπυον ἀμφὶς ἀρωγοί," which translates to "and people were speaking up on either side, to help both men." The application of dike in Book 18 mostly concerns the legal process.

Ate (Ατη), appears three times in different forms: κατηρεφέας(589), θυγάτηρ (398), ἀθανάτῃς (86) . In the first form, it means "covered over," in the second form it means "daughter," and in the third form it means "undying, immortal." 

Notes on lines from Book 18:

• 86: "Achilles wishes that Thetis were dwelling with the Nereids and that Peleus had married a mortal wife, so that she would avoid suffering for her son." - Gentle Reproach
• 502: "As such, the trial scene is ordered in a series of circles, with the two litigants at  the centre and surrounded by the judges who are then in turn surrounded by the  onlookers. Furthermore, in the trial scene it is not just the litigants, judges, and onlookers who debate what would constitute justice in the case, but also the audience of the Iliad who are equally invited to take sides." - The Agony of Homer p. 9
• 508: "The judges, arranged in a circle, debate the right and wrong of both men’s claims, and two talents of gold are offered to the 'judge who in this case spoke the straightest opinion.'" - The Agony of Homer p. 10
• "The important point to bear in mind is that one elder will speak the straightest δίκε, [dike] not by agreeing with one litigant or the other, but by finding the most acceptable settlement (δίκε) somewhere between the two opposing claims (δίκαι) [dikai]. This may be difficult for us to understand since our judges usually decide either for the plaintiff or for the defendant, but Homeric judges normally declared compromise settlements (as they had to in noncompulsory litigation). The purpose of the trial here is to find the best compromise, and thus the one who speaks the straightest δίκε receives two gold talents as a fee." - Gagarin, "Dike in the Works and Days." p. 85.
• "Importantly, however, we never see the moment of judgment, nor do we know if the trial is resolved peacefully. We are instead left with the moment of contestation as an ongoing action, and not the narrative certainty of resolution. The litigants are forever engaged in bitter dispute. The judges are ever deliberating and competing with each other to be the one to speak the straightest dike. The heralds are always striving to keep the crowd in check and prevent strong emotions from bubbling into violence." - The Agony of Homer p. 15. 

BOOK 19

Book 19 deals with Achilles' return to battle. In reading Book 19, the most critical part is the "truce" between Achilles and Agamemnon which began the epic.

To backtrack a bit, the Iliad begins with its most famous lines,

SING, O goddess, the anger [mênis] of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills upon the Achaeans. Many a brave soul [psukhê] did it send hurrying down to Hades, and many a hero did it yield a prey to dogs 

[5] and vultures, for so was the will of Zeus fulfilled from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles, first fell out with one another. 

Up to Book 18, anger [mênis] has been the "guiding" force for Achilles' removal from the battle. All due to his humiliation by Agamemnon. But once Patroklos dies, so does his legitimacy(?) for continuing on with his [mênis], and what ensues is akhos. Two extreme emotions, which he cannot control.

Forms of dike: δίκης (181), αμϕοτεροισι (56, 159).

Forms of ate: βάτην (47; one that treads), ἄτην (88; bewilderment, infatuation), θυγάτηρ Ἄτη (91; daughter; bewilderment, infatuation), ἀπάτησεν, (97; cheat, deceit), Ἄτην (126, 129, 136; bewilderment, infatuation), ὀγδοάτην (246; 'the eighth'), πατὴρ (291), ἐλαφροτάτην (416; 'light in weight').

The Speech of Achilleus (Il. 19.56-73)

"Still, we must let all this be a thing of the past, though it hurts us, and beat down by constraint the anger that rises inside us. Now I am making an end of my anger. It does not become me unrelentingly to rage on." - 19.65-68.

The Speech of Agamemnon (Il. 19.78-144) 

QUOTES:

"This is the word the Achaians have spoken often against me and found fault with me in it, yet I am not responsible but Zeus is, and Destiny, ad Erinys the mist-walking who in assembly caught my heart in the savage delusion on the day I myself stripped from him the prize of Achilleus. Yet what could I do? It is the god who accomplishes all things. DELUSION is the elder daughter (θυγάτηρ Ἄτη) of Zeus, the accursed who deludes all; her feet are delicate and they step not on the firm earth, but she walks the air above men's heads and leads them astray." 19.85-94. 

"He caught by the shining hair of her head the goddess DELUSION in the anger of his heart, and swore a strong oath, that never after this might DELUSION, who deludes all, come back to Olympos and the starry sky. So speaking, he whirled her about in his hand and slung her out of the starry heaven, and presently she came to men's establishments." 19.126-131 

"But since I was deluded and Zeus took my wits away from me, I am willing to make all good and give back gifts in abundance." 19.137-38.

COMMENTARY:

In his 'apology', Agamemnon doesn't apologize solely on his actions, but rather pits the blame on the gods (Zeus, Ate, etc) who led him astray. In Order and History, Vol 2, pg. 174, it notes an interesting analysis on why Agamemnon has done this. Eric Voegelin writes, "With Homer a man's actions are his own only when he sees what he is doing; as long as he is blinded they are not his own and he is not responsible for them; but when in retrospect he sees again, then what he committed in blindness becomes his own through seeing and he compensates for his misdeeds."

In looking at this speech, it is vital to show the progression of Agamemnon on who/what he is blaming for his actions. In this speech, Agamemnon dwells his argument on being blinded by ATE, but why doesn't Achilleus refer to ate, having the same affect on his menis. At this point, it seems (and it is implied through the use of the word 'ate') that Agamemnon understood his actions more clearly than in the beginning, when he tried to solve the dispute. For example, in 2.375 he says, "Zeus of the aegis, son of Kronos, has given me bitterness, who drives me into unprofitable abuse and quarrels." Nothing about ATE. See Book 8, 9, 16.805.

I. RIGHTEOUSNESS (Is it similar to DIKE?) Summary

Not much information here. Author wants to distinguish VIRTUE, from RIGHT, and from JUSTICE.

Something to look into is the term, Physei Dikaion.

II. DEFINITION AND STANDARDS OF DIKE IN HOMER AND HESIOD Summary

Homer and Hesiod's work offer an outlook into the application of dike in its earliest concept. The works to be looked at will be the Iliad (I), Odyssey (O), Theogony (T), and Works and Days (WD).

In trying to figure out the standard, or the origins of dike, one must recognize that the dike of the ancient world, and its English translation (justice) are not the same. It is implied (by Overton), that dike was multifaceted, meaning it had the ability to be used in different ways (subjectively). Today, 'justice' is seen as an objective, absolutist standard that comes from one source, but for the Greeks, it may have been a relative standard. <This is what I'm trying to show/prove in this research, however, I'm also making the claim that at the same time, the Greeks were creating an (our?) objective, absolute standard.>

Throughout Homer and Hesiod's work, dike, is applied to an array of characters (gods, heroes, kings, etc). The first mention of DIKE in Hesiod, is when he is describing the myth of humankind in WD 158-160.

158 This one, by contrast [with the third], was just [dikaion]. It was better. 159 It was the godlike generation of men who were heroes [hērōes]

Overton makes the claim that the best use of dike, in its application, was on mortals who were "contained by its dictates."

DIKE's ORIGINS

•  The root of δίκη (dike) is deik from the word, δείκνυμι. Means "to show/point." It's first application was in the legal process, by which "the right way or the most fair settlement" was showed/pointed. 
• Singular δίκη: a trial
• Plural δίκη: the ruling
• δίκη as a Verb: the process of settling 
• δίκη would later combine with πολος (pólos) to make: JUDGE
• (δικάσπολος; dikáspolos). In the Homeric epics this term applied to a king or geron (member of the council of elders) in the role of judge or magistrate (Il. 1,238). Wielding a sceptre he would deliver the judgement (θέμιστες, thémistes) coming from Zeus. It depends on one's theory about the course of a lawsuit ( dikázein) how this is to be imagined in practice. SOURCE: Thür, Gerhard (Graz) 
•  δίκη appears MORE in Hesiod than Homer. 
• However, Homer employed a different word to convey the meaning of the legal aspect, by using instead, αμϕοτεροισι ("with both parties") 
• Iliad 23.574: ες μεσον αμϕοτεροισι δικασσατε ("Come then, O leaders of the Argives and their men of counsel: judge between the two of us now; and without favor"). 
• This scene/part is KEY because "it is one of the few instances that discusses verbal disputes" with an appeal of a RIGHT for a WRONG.
• 23.579; 82: ("I myself will give the judgment [δικασϖ], and I think no other man of the Danaans can call it in question, for it will be right...This is justice") [ιθεια γαρ εσται]
• The application of dike is applied by connecting it to the legal process. 
• THE ODYSSEY 
• Books 11 and Books 12 
• 11.568-571 Minos giving judgment:

“ἔνθ’ ἦ τοι Μίνωα ἴδον, Διὸς ἀγλαὸν υἱόν, χρύσεον σκῆπτρον ἔχοντα, θεμιστεύοντα ('to declare law and right') νέκυσσιν, ἥμενον, οἱ δέ μιν ἀμφὶ δίκας (shadows come seeking their rulings) εἴροντο ἄνακτα, ἥμενοι ἑσταότες τε κατ’ εὐρυπυλὲς Ἄϊδος δῶ.

• 12.440: Homer describes the trials of men and even at what hours of the day they occur: “«κέκλυτέ μευ μύθων κακά περ πάσχοντες ἑταῖροι.

III. SOME THOUGHTS ABOUT THE ORIGINS OF 'GREEK ETHICS' Summary

This paper aims to trace 'ethics' back to Homer, and the epics attributed to him, as a "tension between justice and individual excellence." 

Contemporary thought: judgment as actions and judgment of individuals or moral character. For the Greeks, they were interested in the "good" life, rather than "what it was that made an action a good or a bad one."

Apollo's description of Achilles in Book 24 of the Iliad, "this cursed Achilles, within whose breast there are no feelings of justice...has destroyed pity, and there is not in him any shame." 24.39-45.

"The ancient concept of the hero depends upon an assessment of arete, but the Iliad could hardly make clearer the fact that such arete does not guarantee that those possessing it will be just, or do what is best for society." His argument is based on FINLEY (p. 117): "The Homeric world, 'puts it this way: 'other qualities, such as justice and self-control, are less highly valued by this society. A wronged individual sets a high value on obtaining redress for himself, but society in general sees so much more need for the success-producing qualities of the agathos than for his justice and self-control that the latter are no part of his arete.'"  

"For Socrates, rather than conceiving of justice as a set of social conventions which are articulated and enforced by and for the sake of society as a whole, he counts justice as that excellence or arete by which any human being will lead the sort of life that will maximize his or her own greatest good. Socrates redefines justice, and argues for the connection between justice, the excellence of the soul, and the human good." 

IV. SOME THOUGHTS ON DIKE Summary

Plato's Protagoras: The sophist suggests that what makes a society or community of human beings possible is their possession of dike (given by Zeus; Source: Plato, Prot. 321 b ff).

Everyone has it, but it is not natural (meaning, not objective?). "They are acquired." It is what distinguishes humans from animals. Hesiod, in WD, delves into it: Hes. WD. 274-85

ὦ Πέρση, σὺ δὲ ταῦτα μετὰ φρεσὶ βάλλεο σῇσι,

275καὶ νυ δίκης ἐπάκουε, βίης δ᾽ ἐπιλήθεο πάμπαν.

τόνδε γὰρ ἀνθρώποισι νόμον διέταξε Κρονίων

ἰχθύσι μὲν καὶ θηρσὶ καὶ οἰωνοῖς πετεηνοῖς

ἐσθέμεν ἀλλήλους, ἐπεὶ οὐ δίκη ἐστὶ μετ᾽ αὐτοῖς:

ἀνθρώποισι δ᾽ ἔδωκε δίκην, ἣ πολλὸν ἀρίστη

280γίγνεται: εἰ γάρ τίς κ᾽ ἐθέλῃ τὰ δίκαι᾽ ἀγορεῦσαι

γιγνώσκων, τῷ μέν τ᾽ ὄλβον διδοῖ εὐρύοπα Ζεύς:

ὃς δέ κε μαρτυρίῃσι ἑκὼν ἐπίορκον ὀμόσσας

ψεύσεται, ἐν δὲ δίκην βλάψας νήκεστον ἀασθῇ,

τοῦ δέ τ᾽ ἀμαυροτέρη γενεὴ μετόπισθε λέλειπται:

285ἀνδρὸς δ᾽ εὐόρκου γενεὴ μετόπισθεν ἀμείνων.

But you, Perses, lay up these things within your heart and [275] listen now to right, ceasing altogether to think of violence. For the son of Cronos has ordained this law for men, that fishes and beasts and winged fowls should devour one another, for right is not in them; but to mankind he gave right which proves [280] far the best. For whoever knows the right and is ready to speak it, far-seeing Zeus gives him prosperity; but whoever deliberately lies in his witness and foreswears himself, and so hurts Justice and sins beyond repair, that man's generation is left obscure thereafter.

As well as in WD 192 ff: δίκη δ᾽ ἐν χερσί, καὶ αἰδὼς οὐκ ἔσται.

However, the author wants to make the argument that the dike employed by Hesiod is NOT based on a "moral sense of right and wrong," as argued by A.E. Taylor and T.A. Sinclair in their translations/analysis.

Hesiod deals with the issue of 'right and wrong', in the fable of the hawk and the nightingale[Hes. WD 202], and that it "serves as a condemnation of violence and injustice." A condemnation of the principle that might is right...? Not so.

"On the interpretation of his fable, Hesiod, far from condemning the attitude of the hawk to the nightingale, uses it to point to the facts of life. Those stronger than oneself can inflict disaster, and it is foolish to try to thwart them."

For the Greeks, was DIKE: 1) the moral principle of not harming others, 2) "not getting into trouble" in other words, rashness, imprudence, or foolishness. The author argues for the latter; dike is that which avoids disaster.

For Hesiod: there is not point in being UNJUST (ádikos) unless it pays. Being UNJUST is not its own reward, it is inevitably tied up with advantage, with good consequences.

"So in [Hesiod], it can be argued that DIKE all carry the meaning not of what is right or wrong 'in principle' but of what is prudent or imprudent in the light of material consequences."

"It is the CONSEQUENCE of an act that prove whether one is JUST or UNJUST.  The Greeks will view an action in the light of its consequences, and not in the light of what is right or wrong 'in principle.'"

Dike is connected with retribution, or understood as "owing DIKE." An example of this would be Paris "owing DIKE" for taking Helen. Menelaos does not go to Troy to punish Paris, but rather, to get Helen and to get rich. The author also makes the argument, that DIKE is an "amount" that some have more of, and others less of.

V. THE SHIELD OF ACHILLES--ILIAD 18.478-608 Summary
It not only displays terrifying images/descriptions of the human condition, but it shows a "vision of earthly life." The description of the shield is a form of ekphrasis.

It symbolizes a turning point for Achilles and the narrative. It is the calm before the storm.

"The shield, then, is the instrument necessary for returning to battle and winning glory, but it is also Hepheastus' reflection on the life that Achilles has exchanged for the immortality of his legend."

Following is a breakdown on the use of vocabulary by Homer. As well as some sources that go into detail about the shield.